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1996年8月托福阅读全真试题

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Medal No.2

Medal No.12

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1996年8月托福阅读全真试题

Questions 1-10
The word laser was coined as an acronym for Light
Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Ordinary
light, from the Sun or a light bulb, is emitted spontaneously,
when atoms or molecules get rid of excess energy by themselves,
without any outside intervention. Stimulated emission
is different because it occurs when an atom or molecule holding
onto excess energy has been stimulated to emit it as light.

Albert Einstein was the first to suggest the existence of
stimulated emission in a paper published in 1917. However ,
for many years physicists thought that atoms and molecules
always were much more likely to emit light spontaneously and
that stimulated emission thus always would be much weaker.
It was not until after the Second World War that physicists
began trying to make stimulated emission dominate. They
sought ways by which one atom or molecule could stimulate
many other to emit light , amplifying it to much higher
powers.

The first to succeed was Charles H.Townes, then at
Colombia University in New York . Instead of working with
light , however, he worked with microwaves, which have a
much longer wavelength, and built a device he called a
"maser" for Microwave Amplification by the Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Although he thought of the key idea in
1951, the first maser was not completed until a couple of years
later. Before long, many other physicists were building masers
and trying to discover how to produce stimulated emission at
even shorter wavelength.

The key concepts emerged about 1957. Townes and
Arthur Schawlow, then at Bell Telephone Laboratories, wrote
a long paper outlining the conditions needed to amplify
stimulated emission of visible light waves. At about the same time,
similar ideas crystallized in the mind of Gordon Gould, then a
37- year-old graduate student at Columbia, who wrote them
down in a series of notebooks. Townes and Schawlow
published their ideas in a scientific journal, Physical Review
Letter, but Gould filed a patent application. Three decades later,
people still argue about who deserves the credit for the concept
of the laser.

1.The word "coined" in line 1 could best be replaced by

(A) created
(B) mentioned
(C) understood
(D) discovered

2.The word "intervention" in line 5 can best be replaced by

(A) need
(B) device
(C) influence
(D) source

3.The word "it" in line 6 refers to

(A) light bulb
(B) energy
(C) molecule
(D) atom

4.Which of the following statements best describes a laser?

(A) A device for stimulating atoms and molecules to emit light.
(B) An atom in a high-energy state.
(C) A technique for destroying atoms or molecules.
(D) An instrument for measuring light waves.

5.Why was Towne's early work with stimulated emission done with microwaves?

(A) He was not concerned with light amplification.
(B) It was easier to work with longer wavelengths.
(C) His partner Schawlow had already begun work on the laser.
(D) The laser had already been developed.

6.In his research at Columbia University, Charles Townes worked with all of the following EXCEPT

(A) stimulated emission
(B) microwaves
(C) light amplification
(D) a maser

7.In approximately what year was the first maser built?

(A) 1917
(B) 1951
(C) 1953
(D) 1957

8.The word "emerged" in line 28 is closest in meaning to

(A) increased
(B) concluded
(C) succeeded
(D) appeared

9.The word "outlining" in line 30 is closest in meaning to

(A) assigning
(B) studying
(C) checking
(D) summarizing

10.Why do people still argue about who deserves the credit for the concept of the laser?

(A) The researchers' notebooks were lost.
(B) Several people were developing the idea at the same time.
(C) No one claimed credit for the development until recently.
(D) The work is still incomplete.

Questions 11-21

Panel painting, common in thirteenth -and fourteenth
-century Europe , involved a painstaking , laborious process.
Wooden planks were joined, covered with gesso to prepare the
surface for painting , and then polished smooth with special
tools. On this perfect surface, the artist would sketch a
composition with chalk, refine it with inks, and then begin the
deliberate process of applying thin layers of egg tempera paint
(egg yolk in which pigments are suspended) with small brushes.
The successive layering of these meticulously applied paints
produced the final, translucent colors.

Backgrounds of gold were made by carefully applying
sheets of gold leaf, and then embellishing of decorating the
gold leaf by punching it with a metal rod on which a pattern
had been embossed. Every step in the process was slow and
deliberate . The quick-drying tempera demanded that the artist
know exactly where each stroke be placed before the brush met
the panel, and it required the use of fine brushes. It was,
therefore , an ideal technique for emphasizing the hard linear
edges and pure, fine areas of color that were so much a part of
the overall aesthetic of the time. The notion that an artist
could or would dash off an idea in a fit of spontaneous
inspiration was completely alien to these deliberately produced works.

Furthermore, making these paintings was so time-consuming
that it demanded assistance. All such work was done
by collective enterprise in the workshops. The painter or
master who is credited with having created painting may have
designed the work and overseen its production, but it is highly
unlikely that the artist's hand applied every stroke of the
brush. More likely, numerous assistants, who had been
trained to imitate the artist's style, applied the paint. The carpenter's shop probably provided the frame and perhaps supplied
the panel, and yet another shop supplied the gold. Thus,
not only many hands , but also many shops were involved in
the final product.

In spite of problems with their condition, restoration,
and preservation many panel paintings have survived, and
today many of them are housed in museum collections.

11.What aspect of panel paintings does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Famous examples
(B) Different styles
(C) Restoration
(D) Production

12.According to the passage, what was the first step in making a panel painting?

(A) Mixing the paint
(B) Preparing the panel
(C) Buying the gold leaf
(D) Making ink drawings

13.The word "it" in line 6 refers to

(A) chalk
(B) composition
(C) artist
(D) surface

14.The word "deliberate" in line 7 is closest in meaning to

(A) decisive
(B) careful
(C) natural
(D) unusual

15.Which of the following processes produced the translucent colors found on panel paintings?

(A) Joining wooden planks to form large sheets.
(B) Polishing the gesso.
(C) Applying many layers of paint.
(D) Covering the background with gold leaf.

16.Whar characteristic of tempera paint is mentioned in the passage?

(A) It dries quickly.
(B) It is difficult to make.
(C) It dissolves easily.
(D) It has to be applied directly to wood.

17.The word "demanded" in line 24 is closest in meaning to

(A) ordered
(B) reported
(C) required
(D) questioned

18.The "collective enterprise" mentioned in line 25 includes all of the following EXCEPT

(A) supplying the gold leaf
(B) building the panels
(C) applying the paint
(D) selling the painting

19.The word "imitate" in line 30 is closest in meaning to

(A) copy
(B) illustrate
(C) promote
(D) believe in

20.The author mentions all of the following as problems with the survivals of panel painting EXCEPT

(A) condition
(B) theft
(C) preservation
(D) restoration

21.The word "them" in line 37 refers to

(A) problems
(B) condition, restoration, preservation
(C) panel paintings
(D) museum collections

Questions 22-32

Crows are probably the most frequently met and easily
identifiable members of the native fauna of the United States.
The great number of tales, legends, and myths about these
birds indicates that people have been exceptionally interested in
them for a long time. On the other hand, when it comes to
substantive -- particularly behavioral -- information, crows
are less well known than many comparably common species
and, for that matter, not a few quite uncommon ones: the
endangered California condor, to cite one obvious example.
There are practical reasons for this.

Crows are notoriously poor and aggravating subjects for
field research. Keen observers and quick learners, they are
astute about the intentions of other creatures, including
researchers, and adept at avoiding them. Because they are so
numerous, active, and monochromatic, it is difficult to
distinguish one crow from another. Bands, radio transmitters, or
other identifying devices can be attached to them , but this of
course requires catching live crows, who are among the wariest
and most untrappable of birds.

Technical difficulties aside , crow research is daunting
because the ways of these birds are so complex and various.
As preeminent is generalists, members of this species
ingeniously exploit a great range of habitats and resources, and
they can quickly adjust to changes in their circumstances.
Being so educable, individual birds have markedly different interests
and inclinations, strategies and scams. For example, one
pet crow learned how to let a dog out of its kennel by pulling
the pin on the door. When the dog escaped, the bird went into
the kennel and ate its food.

22.What is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The ways in which crows differ from other common birds.
(B) The myths and legends about crows.
(C) The characteristics that make crows difficult to study.
(D) The existing methods for investigating crow behavior.

23.According to the first paragraph, what evidence is there that crows have interested people for a long time?

(A) The large number of stories about crows.
(B) The frequency with which crows are sighted.
(C) The amount of research that has been conducted on crows.
(D) The ease with which crows are identified.

24.The word "comparably" in line 7 is closest in meaning to

(A) interestingly
(B) similarly
(C) otherwise
(D) sometimes

25.In line 9, the author mentions the endangered California condor as an example of a species that is

(A) smaller than the crow
(B) easily identifiable
(C) featured in legends
(D) very rare

26.The word "them" in line 10 refers to

(A) crows
(B) subjects
(C) intentions
(D) researchers

27.According to the second paragraph, crows are poor subjects for field research for all of the following reasons EXCEPT

(A) They can successfully avoid observers.
(B) They are hard to distinguish from one another.
(C) They can be quite aggressive.
(D) They are difficult to catch.

28.In the second paragraph, the author implies that using radio transmitters would allow a researcher who studies crow to

(A) identify individual crows
(B) follow flocks of crows over long distances
(C) record the times when crows are most active
(D) help crows that become sick or injured

29.According to the third paragraph, which of the following is true about crows?

(A) They seldom live in any one place for very long.
(B) They thrive in a wide variety of environments.
(C) They have marked preferences for certain kinds of foods.
(D) They use up the resources in one area before moving to another.

30.In line 26, the word "inclinations" is closest in meaning to

(A) tricks
(B) opportunities
(C) preferences
(D) experiences

31.In lines 26-29, the author mentions a pet crow to illustrate which of the following?

(A) The clever ways that crows solve problems.
(B) The differences between pet crows and wild crows.
(C) The ease with which crows can be tamed.
(D) The affection that crows show to other creatures

32.Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?

(A) Crows have relatively long lives.
(B) Crows have keen vision.
(C) Crows are usually solitary.
(D) Crows are very intelligent.

Questions 33-41

In the early days of the United States, postal charges
were paid by the recipient and Charges varied with the
distance carried. In 1825, the United States Congress permitted
local postmasters to give letters to mail carriers for home
delivery, but these carriers received no government salary and their
entire compensation depended on what they were paid by the
recipients of individual letters.

In 1847 the United States Post Office Department
adopted the idea of a postage stamp, which of course simplified
the payment for postal service but caused grumbling by those
who did not like to prepay. Besides, the stamp covered only
delivery to the post office and did not include carrying it to a
private address. In Philadelphia, for example, with a population
of 150,000, people still had to go to the post office to get
their mail. The confusion and congestion of individual citizens
looking for their letters was itself enough to discourage use of
the mail. It is no wonder that, during the years of these
cumbersome arrangements, private letter-carrying and express
businesses developed. Although their activities were only
semilegal, they thrived, and actually advertised that between
Boston and Philadelphia they were a half-day speedier than the
government mail. The government postal service lost volume
to private competition and was not able to handle efficiently
even the business it had.

Finally, in 1863, Congress provided that the mail carriers
who delivered the mail from the post offices to private addresses
should receive a government salary, and that there should
be no extra charge for that delivery. But this delivery service
was at first confined to cities, and free home delivery became a
mark of urbanism. As late as 1887, a town had to have 10,000
people to be eligible for free home delivery. In 1890, of
the 75 million people in the United States, fewer than 20
million had mail delivered free to their doors. The rest, nearly
three-quarters of the population, still received no mail unless
they went to their post office.

33.What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) The increased use of private mail services.
(B) The development of a government postal system.
(C) A comparison of urban and postal services.
(D) The history of postage stamps.

34.The word "varied" in line 2 could best be replaced by

(A) increased
(B) differed
(C) returned
(D) started

35.Which of the following was seen as a disadvantage of the postage stamp?

(A) It had to be purchased by the sender in advance.
(B) It increased the cost of mail delivery.
(C) It was difficult to affix to letters.
(D) It was easy to counterfeit.

36.Why does the author mention the city of Philadephia in line 13?

(A) It was the site of the first post office in the United States.
(B) Its postal service was inadequate for its population.
(C) It was the largest city in the United States in 1847.
(D) It was commemorated by the first United States postage stamp.

37.The word "cumbersome" in line 17 is closest in meaning to

(A) burdensome
(B) handsome
(C) loathsome
(D) quarrelsome

38.The word "they" in line 20 refers to

(A) Boston and Philadephia
(B) businesses
(C) arrangements
(D) letters

39.The private postal services of the nineteenth century claimed that they could do which of the following better than the government?

(A) Deliver a higher volume of mail.
(B) Deliver mail more cheaply.
(C) Deliver mail faster.
(D) Deliver mail to rural areas.

40.In 1863 the United States government began providing which of the following to mail carriers?

(A) A salary
(B) Housing
(C) Transportation
(D) Free postage stamps

41.The word "confined" in line 29 is closest in meaning to

(A) granted
(B) scheduled
(C) limited
(D) recommended

Questions 42-50

Archaeology has long been an accepted tool for studying
prehistoric cultures. Relatively recently the same techniques
have been systematically applied to studies of the more
immediate past. This has been called "historical archaeology," a
term that is used in the United States to refer to any
archaeological investigation into North American sites that postdate
the arrival of Europeans.

Back in the 1930's and 1940's, when building restoration
was popular, historical archaeology was primarily a tool of
architectural reconstruction. The role of archaeologists was to
find the foundations of historic buildings and then take a back
seat to architects.

The mania for reconstruction had largely subsided by the
1950's and 1960's. Most people entering historical archaeology
during this period came out of university anthropology de-
partments., where they had studied prehistoric cultures. They
were, by training, social scientists, not historians, and their
work tended to reflect this bias. The questions they framed
and the techniques they used were designed to help them
understand, as scientists, how people behaved. But because they
were treading on historical ground for which there was often
extensive written do cumentation and because their own knowledge
of these periods was usually limited, their contributions
to American history remained circumscribed. Their reports,
highly technical and sometimes poorly written, went unread.

More recently, professional archaeologists have taken
over. These researchers have sought to demonstrate that their
work can be a valuable tool not only of science but also of
history, providing fresh insights into the daily lives of ordinary
people whose existences might not otherwise be so well
documented. This newer emphasis on archaeology as social history
has shown great promise, and indeed work done in this area
has lead to a reinterpretation of the United States past.

In Kingston, New York, for example, evidence has
uncovered that indicates that English goods were being
smuggled into that city at a time when the Dutch supposedly
controlled trading in the area. And in Sacramento an
excavation at site of a fashionable nineteenth-century hotel
revealed that garbage had been stashed in the building's base-
ment despite sanitation laws to the contrary.

42.What does the passage mainly discuss?

(A) Why historical archaeology was first developed.
(B) How the methods and purpose of historical archaeology have changed.
(C) The contributions architects make to historical archaeology.
(D) The attitude of professional archaeologists toward historical archaeology.

43.According to the first paragraph, what is a relatively new focus in archaeology?

(A) Investigating the recent past.
(B) Studying prehistoric cultures.
(C) Excavating ancient sites in what is now the United States.
(D) Comparing finding made in North America and Europe.

44.According to the passage, when had historical archaeologists been trained as anthropologist?

(A) Prior to the 1930's
(B) During the 1930's and 1940's
(C) During the 1950's and 1960's
(D) After the 1960's
45.The word "framed" in line 18 is closest in meaning to

(A) understood
(B) read
(C) avoided
(D) posed

46.In the third paragraph, the author implies that the techniques of history and the techniques of social science are

(A) quite different from each other
(B) equally useful in studying prehistoric cultures
(C) usually taught to students of archaeology
(D) both based on similar principles

47.The phrase "their contributions" in line 23 refers to the contributions of

(A) social scientists
(B) prehistoric cultures
(C) historians
(D) documentation and knowledge

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